Benedictine Order

The oldest monastic communities in England belong to the Benedictine order. The order takes its name from the set of laws that governs member communities, the Rule of St. Benedict [1]. Composed by Benedict of Nursia in the sixth century, the Rule details the laws by which a community of cenobites should live, including its organization, daily routine, correction of wayward members, ownership of property, and provision for the sick, as well as regulations and guidelines concerning many other subjects. The Rule was adopted by monasteries throughout Europe over the years following St. Benedict's death, and for centuries monasticism was virtually synonymous with the Benedictines [2]. In fact, the appellation "Benedictine" may be applied to the Cluniacs, the Cistercians, and members of other orders that use some form of the Rule. For simplicity's sake, the term is used here only to describe those religious and houses that do not belong to any other order.

The Benedictine order is unique in that it is not a confederation so much as a catch-all classification applied to semi-autonomous communities. It imposes no supra-communal hierarchy upon its houses, though individual monasteries often interfere in the matters of their daughter priories unless the latter are able to become independent. Thus, individual houses often have little oversight imposed upon them from outside the cloister [3]. With the exception of visitations, they are generally responsible for disciplining themselves as they see fit with regard to observance of ritual and the Rule. Such a state of affairs has resulted in corruption and scandal within some houses, and this, combined with the hidebound tradition that encumbers many Benedictine communities, has inspired much criticism of the order in the last forty years, especially from the reform-minded clergy. Indeed, when zealous reformers founded the new, more austere monastic orders in the last century, they were reacting in part to what they saw as the opulent and greedy Benedictine houses [4].

The Benedictines are known as the "black monks" and "black nuns" due to the predominantly dark colors of their garments [5]. Their communities vary widely in size and stature, the most prestigious and independent being known as abbeys, the lesser houses as priories [6]. The individual populations of many Benedictine houses peaked several decades ago, and are gradually declining. A very large male community might number over 100 monks; the cathedral priory of Canterbury has 140. Most, though, are much smaller, with some having less than the minimum apostolic ideal of twelve brethren or sisters and one head [7]. A male Benedictine community is termed a priory if it is subordinate to another house, and an abbey if it is independent; cathedral monasteries, which are in a sense dependent upon episcopates, are known as priories, not abbeys. A nunnery, in contrast, is considered a priory if its endowments are relatively minor, and an abbey otherwise [8]. Some of the wealthiest monastic communities in England are Benedictine, including all but one of the cathedral monasteries, but there are many small and poor priories as well [9].

History

At the end of the sixth century, a Roman mission headed by St. Augustine of Canterbury introduced the Rule of St. Benedict into England. At first, Roman monasticism was not particularly popular on the island. The Celtic model of monastic life, brought to England by Irish missionaries, was preferred. In time, though, Benedictine customs supplanted those of the Irish ascetics, and the observance of the Rule became widespread. By the middle of the eighth century, England was home to a number of substantial religious houses, including both all-male and mixed-sex monasteries, the latter ruled by powerful and influential abbesses. Benedictine monasticism thrived on the island [10].

The Scandinavian invasions and general upheaval of the following centuries almost extinguished regular clerical life in England. A number of religious communities were destroyed outright by raiders, and many others suffered spiritual decay to the point where their members lived more as laypersons than as clergy. This period was followed in the tenth century by a monastic revival, the impetus for which was provided by St. Dunstan and other energetic reformers. Wayward houses were brought back into line, and new communities were established. Not all monasteries were revitalized, however. In particular, the powerful abbeys formerly populated by mixed communities of men and women religious were not restored to their former glory. Some were abandoned entirely, others converted to exclusively male monasteries, and the single remaining abbey, Barking, was refounded as an all-female house, a shadow of its former self. While new communities of nuns were established during the religious revival of the tenth century, they were not of the same stature as the old abbeys, nor were they the equal of the newer male houses. Female monasticism has never fully recovered the prestige and influence it once had in England [11].

The Norman Conquest of 1066 brought further upheaval. The new masters of England were determined to transform the country's monastic culture by imbuing it with Norman traditions. They set about accomplishing their aims by concentrating on reforming monks' houses, leaving most female communities to their own devices. In addition to founding a number of new male Benedictine monasteries, the Normans altered the character of the pre-Conquest communities by placing them under the leadership of dynamic religious from Bec and other influential French houses. These superiors endeavored to supplant English customs with Continental conventions through various means, including in at least one case force of arms. The realization of their aims was only encouraged by the gradual replacement of Anglo-Saxon religious with clergy drawn from the ranks of the Norman nobility. Given the shift from an Anglo-Saxon to a Norman ruling class following 1066, the latter was a natural process, since the nobility formed the pool from which nearly all religious were drawn during this period. Simultaneously, the Normans began to replace the old conventual churches and claustral complexes with structures built on a scale more magnificent than had previously been common in England. Ultimately, these assimilatory efforts met with success; by the early twelfth century, the pre-Conquest houses were little different from their Norman counterparts. The Conquest thus brought fundamental changes to English monasticism [12].

Since the early years of Henry I's reign, English Benedictine houses have been exposed to Cluniac customs via the exchange of religious between the two orders, notably the installation of Cluniac monks as abbots in independent Benedictine houses. As a result, many Benedictine communities have adopted some Cluniac practices as their own, whether in whole or in part. The changes, generally affecting liturgical celebration, have been for the most part gradual rather than radical [13]. To a lesser extent, the culture of the newer and more austere orders such as the Cistercians has influenced the Benedictines as well. For example, the Cistercian criticism of the acceptance of child oblates has led to the abandonment of this practice by most Benedictine houses [14]. But though the black monks and nuns have made subtle changes in response to the examples set by other orders, their communities and traditions are still fundamentally those of the unaffiliated Benedictines. They have not lost their unique identity.

Foundation, Patronage, and Benefaction

In past centuries, there were few alternatives to the Benedictines for those who wished to found a religious house; most of the other orders did not yet exist, or were not popular. Thus, the foundation of a monastic community was almost by definition the foundation of a Benedictine house. Some communities became the favorites of royalty or powerful nobility, and grew in size, wealth, and status into the largest and most influential abbeys in existence today. Of course, not all of the older communities attained such heights; nonetheless, many of the smaller houses have persisted, some accumulating a fair amount of wealth in the process. In the first few decades following the Conquest, the new Norman nobility founded numerous Benedictine communities and endowed those already in existence with new possessions. At first, the Normans only established new male houses, but as time went on, their enthusiasm for such enterprises flagged, and female foundations became increasingly popular. In the last century, however, the popularity of houses of this order has declined amongst their would-be patrons and benefactors, and rarely these days is a new community of Benedictines brought into being [15].

Reasons for the Decline in Patronage

Regular clergy as a whole are no less popular with patrons than they were in the past. In fact, the newer religious orders still receive at least adequate financial and material support from the laity. The Benedictines, however, have suffered a declining number of donations. This is due primarily to competition from the other orders. Since there are only a limited number of endowments available to monasteries, the success of the Cistercians, Augustinians, and others has necessarily been at the Benedictines' expense. Two principal factors have motivated the shift of funding from the older to the newer orders, one spiritual, the other temporal. The reformist orders have caught the imagination of the laity, who perceive them as leading devout and austere lives exemplifying the monastic ideal. In contrast, laypersons may see Benedictine religious as indolent and prone to sin. To many observers, the black monks and their female counterparts live as do lay lords, enjoying the fruits of the labors of others and engaging in far too much interaction with the secular world [16]. This negative perception of Benedictines has also encouraged potential religious to look to the other orders when entering the monastic life, and thus has contributed to the gradual decline in Benedictine monastic populations [17].

Spiritual concerns alone do not motivate the lack of interest in the old order; other, more worldly considerations also govern patrons' choices of monastic donees. Practicality favors the granting of assets to houses of the newer orders instead of Benedictine monasteries. The latter require much the same resources as do lay lords: arable, pasture, mills, tolls, fees, and numerous tenants. In the first years following the Conquest, the nobility had a surplus of land, and thus lords were relatively liberal in their donations to monasteries, whether the latter were of pre-Conquest origin or new foundations. As the years progressed, however, cultivated land has become a much more valuable commodity. This is due to both a rise in the price of agricultural produce, and to the fact that many lords subinfeudated their lands to such an extent that their descendants now have less demesne than they would like. Since the newer monastic orders tend to require less in the way of developed land, their popularity has increased at the expense of the Benedictines. A lord today finds that it is much cheaper to endow a house of Cistercian monks, who are happy with land that is waste to the donor, or an Augustinian priory, which is ideally suited to receive gifts of benefices, than it is to support a Benedictine community [18].

This is not to say that Benedictine houses receive so little that they are unable to support themselves; in fact, this is generally not the case, though few communities are actually expanding their holdings to any significant degree. New Benedictine houses have even been founded in the last hundred years, especially in the early and middle parts of the century. Most of these, however, are nunneries. Since female communities are not expected to be as wealthy as their male counterparts, the foundation or patronage of a nunnery is generally not as expensive an undertaking. In some areas, female convents are fairly popular beneficiaries of laypersons' largess; in particular, the middle of this century saw a large number of nunneries founded in the north of England [19].

Rights of Patrons

Of all the orders, the Benedictines have the most traditionally feudal relationships with their patrons, who are generally regarded as liege lords. This is especially true of the older monasteries, which hold much of their land by military tenure from their patrons [20]. The latter have a number of rights concerning their monastic tenants, variations of a lay lord's usual entitlements with respect to vassals. These privileges include a right to the community's hospitality and some power over abbatial elections. Communities founded in the last 100 years, which are likely to be smaller than the older houses, often hold more of their lands by frankalmoin instead of military service; nonetheless, they too may have powerful and meddlesome patrons who insist upon interfering in elections. A liege lord has a practical interest in the outcome of such contests, since he or she wants to ensure that the new head of the house will be a good vassal. Interference in elections is thus akin to the right of a liege lord to arrange, approve, or veto the marriage plans of a lay vassal's daughter. Regardless of its size or age, a Benedictine house also owes spiritual services, such as prayers for its patron's soul, just as do houses of all orders [21].

Confratres and Corrodians

Benedictine houses are not restricted in the agreements they may make with laypersons. Thus, both confratres and corrodians are often found associated with such communities [22].

Sources of Income

Benedictine houses exploit a number of resources in order to bring in revenue. Of all religious orders, their management and use of such resources most closely mirror the practices of lay lords.

Land Holdings

Given that Benedictine communities' relationships with their patrons are often traditionally feudal in nature, it is perhaps not surprising that they manage and work their own holdings much as do lay lords. In fact, the Benedictines' use of land more closely mirrors lay customs than do the practices of other orders. A greater proportion of their holdings tends to be agricultural land worked by tenants [23]. The older houses have vassals who hold by military tenure, an arrangement that provides the monasteries with knights that they in turn owe their liege lords. Such houses may also farm out some of their lands, or work them directly under a bailiff or reeve. Newer houses, which more often hold by frankalmoin, are less likely to have tenants holding by knight service. Recently, a small number of Benedictine communities have begun to use granges in emulation of the newer orders to manage a portion of their lands. Most of the order's houses have been granted lands that were already developed and populated, however, and thus employ the manorial system for the administration of their holdings [24].

Some Benedictine houses, especially older ones, are located within towns that have grown up around them over the years. Such monasteries tend to be inextricably involved with the secular communities surrounding them. The monks or nuns may grant the burgesses market privileges, agree to or dispute the formation of guilds, or farm out the right to hold borough courts to the town citizens. If the town prospers, it may generate enormous amounts of wealth for the religious who rule it, though it is also more likely to attempt to wrest control of its government away from its monastic lord. Most religious communities located within urban areas are male houses, though a few nunneries occupy similar positions. Most female convents are founded either in rural areas, or on the suburban outskirts of towns [25].

Patrons who are also liege lords have the right of wardship over the monastic lands when the abbacy or priorate is vacant. The patron, who is often the king, is entitled to custody of the superior's portion of the monastic property and the revenue generated thereby during the vacancy. This privilege mirrors a lord's right of wardship over a lay vassal and his or her property when the latter has not yet come of age. In the case of a house under royal patronage, the justiciar sends royal clerks to audit the monastic property, and a fee is assessed that must be paid to the king annually until the vacancy is filled. A religious from within or outside the community who is appointed by the king acts as a sort of bailiff, ensuring that the appropriate revenue is forwarded to the crown each year. Alternatively, the king may use the wardship as a patronage resource, granting it to a bishop whom the king wishes to reward, or even granting it to the religious house itself in return for a significant fee. Other patrons may follow similar courses of action [26].

The lucrative nature of monastic custody encourages unscrupulous patrons to neglect to fill vacancies for long periods of time. Such extended vacancies have led Benedictine monastic communities to split their lands between the head of the house and the rest of the community. This strategy allows religious houses to avoid forfeiting all of the income generated by their lands while they endure a vacant abbacy or priorate. When the office is not vacant, the superior's portion of the monastic property pays for his or her household and its servants, as well as some of the costs of hospitality. If the monastic community holds lands by knight service, the superior's holdings also provide the necessary knights to the house's liege lord [27].

Parish Churches

Benedictine houses are happy to receive rights over parish churches, both advowsons and appropriations, as donations. Though the canonical orders have provided stiff competition for the receipt of such gifts, a number of benefices have fallen under the control of the black monks and nuns [28]. Since women cannot be ordained, and monks are not supposed to act as parish priests, the cure of souls in an appropriated parish should be entrusted to a regular canon or secular clergyman. However, male Benedictine houses sometimes flout canon law and staff appropriated benefices with monks in order to avoid paying for the services of a priest. Those female convents that include regular canons in their populations may lawfully appoint such canons as the vicars of their appropriated parishes. As an alternative, a house of black monks or nuns may neglect a benefice by keeping the vicarage vacant, or fill the vacancy with an inadequate priest, leaving the parishioners with little or no spiritual guidance. These abuses are also forbidden by the Church, but still occur with some regularity [29].

Shrines and Pilgrims

Benedictine communities, especially the older and wealthier ones, often possess shrines and holy relics reputed to be imbued with great spiritual power. As a consequence, these houses are popular destinations for pilgrims, and the latter may serve as a significant source of income. Benedictines sometimes make public appeals for money in order to finance new construction, offering indulgences or other spiritual services as rewards for those who respond to their plea. This practice is forbidden by some of the newer orders, and is seen by critics as yet more evidence of the black monks' and nuns' corrupt nature [30].

Craftmaking

Many Benedictine houses engage in craftmaking, and some communities are famous for the quality of their work with precious metals, illumination of manuscripts, and in women's houses, needlepoint. Such work may be sold, given as gifts, or used to embellish the monastic precinct. The majority of communities, however, produce more mundane items for their own use or for sale [31].

Organization and Hierarchy

Benedictine monasteries are not as a rule exempt from episcopal visitation. However, individual houses may be considered exempt according to custom. Some houses have gone to great lengths to remove themselves from authority of the bishops, taking such cases to the papacy in Rome in the hope of obtaining or maintaining exemption. The litigation involved is generally quite costly; monasteries may end up hundreds of marks in debt because of travel costs, the need to pay off various papal officials, and other expenses incurred while prosecuting their suits in Rome [32]. Regardless, exemption may bring mere status rather than any other advantage to those houses that possess it, since bishops sometimes forego visitations of monasteries in their dioceses for years at a time [33].

Internally, Benedictine houses organize themselves along standard monastic lines, with a superior, a cellarer, a precentor, and other officers dictated by the Rule or added to the hierarchy in the last few centuries. Property is divided between the head of the house and the rest of the community [34]. Additionally, the obedientiary system is standard in Benedictine houses. The community's share of the monastic possessions is apportioned between various departments, each headed by an obedientiary, for the purposes of management and profit. This system has led to numerous abuses, and critics of the Benedictines hold the obedientiary system up as an example of why the black monks and nuns are in urgent need of reform [35].

A number of Benedictine nunneries in the north of England hold lands that fall outside the manorial system. Such property lacks the integral labor force found on manorial lands, and thus its holder must directly exploit it instead of merely providing management from a distance. Additionally, northern nunneries tend to possess more appropriated benefices than do their southern counterparts, benefices to which vicars must be appointed. Their holdings therefore threaten to enmesh them in a series of temporal relationships, a state of affairs that is at odds with attempts to remain apart from the secular world [36]. Houses that find themselves in this predicament, inspired by the example set by nearby Gilbertine priories, often incorporate male religious into their communities. Some include a small number of regular canons who are to minister to the nuns' spiritual needs, and may also fulfill parochial duties in appropriated churches. Conversi of one or both sexes may be present, charged with managing and working the community's lands. Many such monasteries are ruled by a prior with a subordinate prioress, or the male and female superiors may share power. Women outnumber men in such communities by a ratio of between two and four to one. The inclusion of male religious and lay sisters serves to insulate the nuns from regular contact with laypersons when such isolation would otherwise be impossible [37].

Cathedral Priories

About half the dioceses in England, including the archdiocese of Canterbury, are headed by Benedictine monastic cathedrals. Each cathedral priory, as these monasteries are called, is populated by a full complement of religious, with the bishop holding the title of abbot. The cathedral priories hold their land separately from their episcopal abbots, just as with other Benedictine houses. The offices that are filled by canons in secular sees are held by the senior monks instead, or occasionally shared in some manner between regular and secular clergy. As such, the bishops of these episcopates preside over a sometimes uneasy fusion of hierarchies and customs drawn from the monastic and secular ecclesiastical realms [38].

Ideally, the bishop and the monks work together in harmony in a monastic cathedral, but in practice this is rarely true for a variety of reasons. The bishop's duties keep him from overseeing the religious, and in consequence, the prior has come to function as the de facto head of the community, the bishop holding little actual power over his monks. The bishop is entitled to appoint the prior and usually a few of the other major priory officers, such as the cellarer, the sacrist, the chamberlain, and the almoner, but he should make the appointments only with the consent of the monks. Other officers are to be elected by the religious without interference from the bishop. Other factors, both psychological and practical, contribute to discord between bishop and priory. The latter's monks are permanent fixtures, whereas bishops come and go. Additionally, many bishops have secular ecclesiastical backgrounds, and there may be little love lost between them and the religious for this reason. A bishop of a monastic see has fewer patronage resources with which to reward the secular clergy of his entourage, since the monks hold a significant portion of the episcopal lands [39].

These differences provide opportunities for a host of internal conflicts to plague the cathedral. The monks may attempt to gain additional freedom from their bishop, with their prior leading them in the fight. Since monasteries are supposed to elect their own abbots, the monks often feel entitled to elect one of their number as bishop, and sometimes attempt it. They are usually unsuccessful in such endeavors, which is not surprising given the power wielded by the other interested parties when it comes to the appointment of a bishop, including other members of the secular ecclesiastical hierarchy, the king, and the papacy. When the monks are foiled in their attempt, they tend to alienate their new bishop and work against him [40]. All this contributes to bad feeling between many cathedral priories and their bishop-abbots, and has led to bitter argument and even violence. Baldwin, the archbishop of Canterbury, has been involved for years in a scheme to establish a collegiate church of secular canons that would eventually replace the archdiocesan cathedral priory of Christ Church. He has met strong opposition from his monks, and at one point responded by imprisoning them within their monastery. Even more bitter is the conflict between Hugh of Nonant, bishop of Lichfield and Coventry, and the diocesan priory of Coventry. The bishop, a longtime foe of cathedral priories, has committed violent acts against his monastery, ejecting a number of the brethren and destroying some of the conventual buildings [41].

Agreements of Confraternity Between Houses

Benedictine monasteries do not only enter into agreements of confraternity with individuals [42], but also with other monastic communities within or outside the order. Such agreements may stipulate spiritual support, with the religious of each house saying offices for the souls of the other's deceased. Many agreements of confraternity involve temporal aspects as well. The members of each house may be considered full members of the other, meaning that religious from one house have rights in the other's choir and chapter, for example. This sort of agreement often stipulates that a monk or nun fleeing from one house to the other is to be received well by the latter, and that the superior of the second house is to help the wayward brother or sister return to his or her community. Needless to say, problems sometimes arise when the religious of one house attempt to participate in the election of another house's superior, citing as their justification the agreement of confraternity between the two communities [43].

Head of the Community and Disciplinary Officials

Canon law holds that when an abbacy or priorate becomes vacant in a Benedictine house, the patron is notified, and he or she gives the community permission to elect a candidate for the position. Once the superior-elect is chosen by the religious, he or she is presented to the patron for the latter's approval. If all goes well, the patron in turn presents the candidate to the diocesan or, if the house is exempt from episcopal authority, the party holding the right of visitation. After the latter confirms the election, the superior-elect goes through the installation ceremony, after which he or she is considered the head of the community. During the vacancy, the community governs itself much as it would if its superior was absent, with the subordinate prior or prioress taking the role of leader and the religious acting as advisors while in chapter [44].

While ideally the filling of a vacancy should proceed smoothly as outlined above, it rarely does. The powerful interests of the patron, the visitor, and other parties, which often fail to coincide with those of the community, cannot be denied. In particular, those Benedictine monasteries to which the king acts as patron are expected to send a delegation of religious to court, where they hold an election under royal supervision. The religious, for their part, often require the delegates to take an oath to only elect one of a few candidates, the latter being chosen by the monks or nuns in chapter prior to delegation's departure. The names of the candidates may even be presented to the delegates under seal. The king, of course, will only accept the electoral result if it pleases him. Although the elections held in this manner are clearly controlled by the patron, the monasteries often end up with a superior with whom they are satisfied, since the royal ear is generally receptive to the delegation's recommendations. Occasionally, the king insists upon appointing someone for whom he has been waiting for a vacancy to open. But even in such cases, the new superior is usually qualified for his or her new position [45].

The actual investiture of the superior of a Benedictine community that is not exempt from episcopal authority usually involves the bestowing of formal confirmation and a blessing by a bishop, generally the diocesan. The latter also has the right, by ancient custom, to depose the head of a non-exempt house. This is almost never done, however, probably due to the fact that such an action would irritate the patron of the monastery and other interested and powerful parties. In fact, Benedictine communities have no rules as to how an unworthy superior is to be removed. In most cases, the latter retains his or her office until death, or until he or she is transferred to another priorate or abbacy, or in the case of a male, is made a bishop [46].

While ideally a Benedictine superior is intimately involved in his or her community's conventual life, such is rarely the case. In fact, it may be argued that compared with the superiors of other orders, the abbots and abbesses of large Benedictine houses are the most aloof from their brethren or sisters. Such a superior is not a parental figure so much as an ambassador who represents the community to the outside world, but has little contact with the religious in his or her charge. The problem is at least partly one of limited time. The superior must put much effort into the maintenance of good relations with neighbors, patrons, and other parties of consequence. He or she must also administer his or her portion of the monastic lands; since the latter are often widely scattered, this involves a significant amount of travel [47]. If an abbot, he may be called upon to act as a papal judge-delegate, a position that may easily consume months of time [48]. As a result, the head of a wealthy community is likely to be away from the monastic precinct for much of his or her tenure of office. Smaller and poorer Benedictine monasteries suffer the absence of their superiors less often, allowing the heads of such communities to be more involved in the daily lives of their charges.

Benedictine communities, like houses of other orders, generally appoint a master or mistress of novices, and perhaps a separate master or mistress of children, though usually the two positions are combined into one. Neither office is considered particularly important by the black monks and their female counterparts. This is because the latter do not believe that the training of novices is of great consequence; the two officers are merely meant to teach initiates the community's customs and ensure that they behave themselves [49].

Servants

With the exception of the northern nunneries discussed above, Benedictine communities do not include lay brethren or lay sisters. Instead, free and unfree laypersons are employed as servants. These are merely hired or bonded workers and have no power or status within the communal hierarchy, though of course some of them may oversee other servants as part of their duties. In the typical monastery of black monks, servants outnumber the brethren whom they serve, occasionally by two or even three to one. Female houses, which are often poorer, may have only one servant for each nun. In general, only impoverished houses that cannot afford to maintain enough agricultural and domestic workers expect their members to toil in the fields or perform menial tasks. If at all possible, such labor is left to the servants [50].

Becoming Religious, Profession, and Renunciation of Vows

In the past, Benedictine houses frequently accepted child oblates into their communities. In the last century, the popularity of this practice has declined considerably. The newer orders such as the Cistercians forbid their members from accepting child oblates, and religious reformers heap scorn upon the practice. Monastics are supposed to freely choose the cloistered life, not be forced into it, yet children offered to a religious house as oblates have no choice but to be professed. As a result, the Benedictines rarely accept such offerings any longer [51].

This is not to say that aspirants do not join communities as children; in fact, child novices are still quite common amongst the Benedictines. However, they are not oblates, and thus are supposed to be able to decline profession and reenter the secular world. Older aspirants are meant to spend a year as novices before being professed, but oftentimes their novitiate is considerably shorter [52].

The religious populating Benedictine communities are often of noble stock, especially in the older and wealthier monasteries. Males commonly take the priestly orders; in fact, black monks are more likely to be ordained than the male religious of most other orders [53].

Structures and Layout of the Monastic Complex

Benedictine monasteries are not, as a rule, built in places of solitude. While the newer orders often seek out quiet landscapes in which to locate their precincts, the black monks and nuns usually live near or within villages and towns. Even when a Benedictine monastery is built in a deserted area, it tends to attract artisans, and in time, a village often grows around it. Such a village is dominated by the monastery at its center, the religious acting as the lay community's lord. Eventually, the village may become a borough, with a market, fairs, and other urban characteristics [54]. As with other aspects of the order, the fact that Benedictine houses are so often located in towns full of merchants and craftspersons irritates critics, who see the black monks and nuns as overly obsessed with wealth and luxury. Additionally, nunneries come under attack when they are within close proximity to male religious houses. Any hint of scandal involving regular clergy of different sexes brings calls for the removal of nuns to a safe distance from monks, and for severe restrictions to be placed upon the movement of women religious [55].

Apsidal east end of Durham Cathedral Priory [56]

The physical layout and structure of a Benedictine enclosure generally follows standard monastic patterns, with the church forming the northern side of the cloister if possible. The church frequently features a tower at its crossing, or between the nave and chancel if it lacks transepts. Its chancel often sports an apsidal east end, as might the aisles of the chancel. Semicircular projections containing altars may also extend from the east wall of the transepts in a male house, where most of the religious are ordained and thus may celebrate private Masses. A cathedral priory usually sets aside the chancel as a private chapel for its monks [57].

The other three ranges of a Benedictine monastery hold the dormitory,chapter house, parlor, refectory, storage cellars, and so forth. The refectory is often aligned along an east-west axis, with the kitchen and calefactory located either to one side of it, or below the dormitory, or in a detached building to the south of the refectory. The latter arrangement reduces the risk of a blaze spreading through the complex. The subordinate prior or prioress may be quartered on the upper level of the western range; in smaller communities, the superior and guests may be there as well [58].

Life as a Religious

Although the Rule states that each day should include liturgical celebration, study, and manual labor, Benedictine monasteries have so de-emphasized physical work that it is rarely undertaken by those religious who can avoid it. If possible, servants labor in the fields and gardens, and the professed only work with their hands when copying books or exercising a craft, if at all. This means that Benedictines have more time available to devote to intellectual and liturgical purposes than the Rule may have intended. Since each house governs itself with little supervision provided by an external authority, the actual practices of black monks and nuns vary fairly widely between communities [59].

In general, the course of day-to-day life is to a great extent determined by the myriad traditions that have developed over the years in each house, especially the older monasteries. Some communities stress the celebration of the Divine Office, others the copying of books, and a few have gradually relaxed discipline to the point where the inmates have spare time on their hands. Most have customs that lead to idiosyncrasies. One house might serve two meals each day throughout the winter months, another might extend the celebration of one or more canonical hours at the expense of private prayer, and a third might expect its members to do some ritualized labor on occasion. The presence of so many different customs in Benedictine communities, and the resulting lack of uniformity, has often stood in the way of reform, and this has only encouraged critics in their condemnations of the order. The fact that obedientiaries are excused from following the monastic regimen when they are fulfilling their duties, and often live more as laypersons than as regular clergy, has only increased the outcry of detractors [60].

Structure of the Horarium

The diversity of foci and customs amongst Benedictine houses has encouraged each community to develop a different daily schedule. Nonetheless, most houses follow an adaptation of what might be called a standard horarium. The latter varies depending upon the time of the year, the day of the week, the occurrence of feast days, and so forth. However, it always includes time for liturgy, studying, and the necessities of life such as eating and sleeping. On Sundays and feast days, any manual labor that might otherwise be performed is replaced by study or liturgical elaboration [61].

Roughly speaking, the horarium changes fundamentally three times each year. During the first period, from September 13th through Ash Wednesday, the winter schedule is in effect, featuring one meal per day in the early afternoon except on Sundays and feast days, when a second meal is allowed in the evening. Through the end of October, the religious may nap twice per day, but from November onwards through the winter, they only sleep during the hours of darkness. The second period extends through Lent, and is thus known as the Lenten schedule. During this time, a single meal is taken just as in the winter, but in the late afternoon so as to allow fasting through the daylight hours. A variation of the Lenten schedule applies on other fast days, such as Ember Days. Finally, during the third period, from Easter through September 12th, the religious follow the summer schedule. They nap twice each day and have two meals, dinner around midday and supper in the evening. However, on Wednesdays and Fridays from Whitsuntide onwards, the standard summer schedule is put aside and a single meal is eaten each day in the early afternoon. Children and elderly religious are often allowed a small morning breakfast throughout the year [62]. Sample schedules for each of these periods are provided in the Appendix of this document.

Within the three periods, there are numerous deviations from the standard timetables, the details of which are beyond the scope of this article. The schedule of any monastic house is extremely complex, and given that each Benedictine community incorporates its own variations into daily life, the above can provide only the roughest of outlines.

Worship and Ritual

Benedictine communities perform two or three communal Masses each day: morrow Mass, High Mass, and optionally the Mass of Our Lady, dedicated to the Virgin Mary. The celebration of the Divine Office, the Offices of All Saints, the Dead, and Our Lady, as well as additional psalms, varies between houses, but in general such rituals take a considerable amount of time each day. Private prayers are offered at specific times as dictated by the horarium. Since almost all brethren besides conversi are ordained, the saying of private Masses is quite common amongst the black monks. Benedictines generally celebrate feast days more often and with greater ceremony than do the religious of most other orders. Their critics may attribute this to the Benedictines' love of food, splendor, and rest, but their traditional emphasis on liturgical observance is also a factor [63].

Study and Writing

In the last century, secular universities have surpassed monastic schools as educational institutions, and the days when monks were the foremost scholars in Europe have passed. However, the cloister is still a center of learning, and the larger Benedictine houses, together with some Augustinian communities, are arguably foremost amongst monasteries with respect to intellectual activity [64]. The greatest houses of the black monks, with their vast wealth and their inmates' relatively undemanding schedules, have been able to build up their book collections to the point where they have the largest libraries in England, each containing hundreds of tomes. The cathedral priory of Canterbury has a collection of over 600 volumes, and Durham's library holds more than 400. A small and impoverished priory, of course, has far less, perhaps even as few as a dozen books. Nonetheless, such a monastery generally has more works than would a similarly sized counterpart belonging to another order [65].

Furthermore, Benedictine libraries tend to hold a greater diversity of works than do those of the reformist orders, with books on theology, canon law, literature, and medicine nestled alongside bibles, saints' lives, and historical chronicles [66]. The books of these libraries are often not only intellectually stimulating, but also visually stunning. Benedictine scribes and illuminators, as well as the laypersons hired by the black monks and nuns to assist in copying and rubrication, are known for the high quality of their work, and at times considerable resources are lavished upon the creation of a book. The result is a work featuring richly drawn illustrations, gold leaf decoration, and an elaborate binding that may include a cover inlaid with precious metals [67].

The order produced some impressive scholars during the heyday of monastic learning, and even now, the religious of some Benedictine houses are known for their scholarship. Studying generally replaces work on feast days, and in some communities, the horarium is amended to allow those who wish to read during rest periods to do so. These conditions foster intellectual activity in Benedictine houses. With the rise of universities, however, the cloister schools of the black monks are in decline. Men who seek a good education are better off in the secular colleges of Paris than in a monastery. Schooling for women is a different matter, since they generally cannot attend universities. For them, Benedictine conventual life offers the best opportunity for education, and many of the most learned women are found amongst the black nuns [68].

The decline in Benedictine scholarship is due not only to the universities' attraction of learned men away from the monasteries. The obedientiary system, and administrative responsibilities in general, consume energy at the expense of intellectual pursuits. As religious become more involved in managing monastic resources, they have less time for learning or the reproduction of books. Much of the copying that is done is performed by younger religious or those who are uninterested in obedientiary duties. Even the scribes hired by some Benedictine houses are often employed in secretarial capacities instead of as copyists [69].

Food and Drink

Benedictine diets are not known for their severity, especially when compared with those of the newer and more austere religious orders. Though the Rule of St. Benedict proscribes the eating of meat, fish is eaten at all Benedictine houses, and some inmates partake of lard and the flesh of birds as well. Child novices may be allowed the full range of meat dishes, and the head of a house may well have the flesh of pigs, deer, or other animals at his or her table. Obedientiaries frequently eat whatever they wish while travelling, and even when they are within the conventual walls, they may take their meals with the guests of the house and indulge in foods not found in the refectory [70].

Though their diets are more restricted, cloistered monks and nuns also enjoy a variety of dishes in many Benedictine communities. Quantities are often generous, and pittances are common additions to the daily meals. Feast days feature elaborate banquets, with ten or more courses served in the refectories of the wealthiest houses on important holidays. Ale is the usual beverage, or wine if the community can afford it. Mead may be served on special occasions [71]. The customary drink in the refectory in the afternoon during the summer and in the evening in winter sometimes includes light bread or cakes [72]. Not surprisingly, reformist clergy often hold up Benedictine diets as further evidence that the order has strayed from the path of true monasticism into sinful corruption [73].

Clothing

Each Benedictine religious generally wears a cassock with a scapular over it, and a cloak when outdoors. Nuns wear veils as well. All vestments are usually black, leading to the Benedictines being termed "black monks" and "black nuns" [74].

Conversation and Silence

Benedictines are not to converse except during certain times of the day, generally during work periods. Even when talking is permitted, it should concern business, administrative, or practical matters, not frivolity. On feast days, when no work is done, such discussion is not allowed. At any time when conversation is proscribed, but is absolutely necessary, it should either be conducted using hand signals, or else transacted in the parlor [75].

Appendix: The Horarium

The following tables provide a general summary of the Benedictines' daily schedule at various times of the year. These are only the most basic approximations of the actual schedules used by each individual community. Since the horarium differs according to the date and monastery in question, the variations are almost infinite and are not enumerated here. Additionally, many details, such as the numerous psalms that are said at different times throughout the day, are not included. All times are given in natural hours [76].

Table 1: Horarium, September 13 - October 31

Approximate Time	Activity
2:00	Professed rise from their beds, don night shoes, proceed to the choir, and recite private prayers while waiting for the children to arrive. The latter enter and say their prayers while the professed wait.
2:30	Celebration of Nocturns (Divine Office, Office of the Dead, Office of All Saints, Office of Our Lady).
4:30 (or when finished with Nocturns)	Reading.
5:30 (or at first light)	Celebration of Matins (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady). Sleep in the dormitory.
6:30 (or when daylight is full)	Celebration of Prime (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).
7:30 (or when finished with Prime)	Recitation of private Masses by ordained religious, and reading.
8:00	Return to dormitories, wash, don day shoes, and recite private prayers.
8:15	Celebration of Terce (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady). Celebration of morrow Mass.
9:00	Meet in chapter.
10:00	Reading or work such as the copying of books.
12:15	Celebration of Sext (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady). Celebration of High Mass. Refectory servers and readers leave the church and consume a small amount of bread and ale.
13:15	Celebration of None (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).
14:00	Dinner (prandium) in the refectory. Sleep in the dormitory (siesta).
15:30	Reading or work such as the copying of books.
17:30	Celebration of Vespers (Divine Office, Office of the Dead, Office of All Saints, Office of Our Lady).
18:00	Return to the dormitory and change into night shoes. Drink in the refectory.
18:30	Public reading (collatio) in the choir.
18:45	Celebration of Compline (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady). Recitation of private prayers.
19:00	Retire to dormitory for sleep.

Table 1 summarizes the winter horarium through the end of October. It allows for two sleep periods during daylight hours and a single meal, dinner, taken in the afternoon. Note that on Sundays and other feast days, many houses serve a second meal, supper, in the late afternoon or early evening hours.

Table 2: Horarium, November 1 - Ash Wednesday

Approximate Time Activity

2:30 Professed rise from their beds, don night shoes, proceed to the choir, and recite private prayers while waiting for the children to arrive. The latter enter and say their prayers while the professed wait.

3:00 Celebration of Nocturns (Divine Office, Office of the Dead, Office of All Saints, Office of Our Lady).

5:00 (or when finished with Nocturns) Reading.

6:00 (or at first light) Celebration of Matins (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).

6:45 (or when daylight is full) Celebration of Prime (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).

7:30 (or when finished with Prime) Recitation of private Masses by ordained religious, and reading.

8:00 Return to dormitories, wash, don day shoes, and recite private prayers.

8:15 Celebration of Terce (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).
Celebration of morrow Mass.

9:00 Meet in chapter.

10:00 Reading or work such as the copying of books.

12:15 Celebration of Sext (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).
Celebration of High Mass.
Refectory servers and readers leave the church and consume a small amount of bread and ale.

13:15 Celebration of None (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).

14:00 Dinner (prandium) in the refectory.

14:45 Reading or work such as the copying of books.

17:00 Celebration of Vespers (Divine Office, Office of the Dead, Office of All Saints, Office of Our Lady).

17:30 Return to the dormitory and change into night shoes.
Drink in the refectory.

18:00 Public reading (collatio) in the choir.

18:15 Celebration of Compline (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).
Recitation of private prayers.

18:30 Retire to dormitory for sleep.

Table 2 outlines the winter horarium from November through the beginning of Lent. The two daytime naps are eliminated, but otherwise it is nearly the same as the autumn timetable. Again, the religious of many houses take a second meal, supper, on Sundays and other feast days.

Table 3: Horarium, Lent, Ember Days, and other Fast Days

Approximate Time Activity

2:00 Professed rise from their beds, don night shoes, proceed to the choir, and recite private prayers while waiting for the children to arrive. The latter enter and say their prayers while the professed wait.

2:30 Celebration of Nocturns (Divine Office, Office of the Dead, Office of All Saints, Office of Our Lady).

4:30 (or when finished with Nocturns) Reading.

5:00 (or at first light) Celebration of Matins (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).

5:45 (or when daylight is full) Celebration of Prime (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).

7:00 (or when finished with Prime) Recitation of private Masses by ordained religious, and reading.

8:00 Return to dormitories, wash, don day shoes, and recite private prayers.

8:15 Celebration of Terce (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).
Celebration of morrow Mass.

9:00 Meet in chapter.

10:00 Reading or work such as the copying of books.

12:15 Celebration of Sext (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).
Celebration of High Mass.

13:15 Celebration of None (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).

14:00 Reading or work such as the copying of books.
Refectory servers and readers consume a small amount of bread and ale.

17:00 Celebration of Vespers (Divine Office, Office of the Dead, Office of All Saints, Office of Our Lady).

17:30 Dinner (prandium) in the refectory.
Return to the dormitory and change into night shoes.

18:15 Public reading (collatio) in the choir.

18:30 Celebration of Compline (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).
Recitation of private prayers.

18:45 Retire to dormitory for sleep.

Table 3 lays out the Lenten horarium, which is used on other fast days during the year as well. It is nearly identical to the winter timetable, except that the religious fast all day and only eat their dinner in the early evening.

Table 4: Horarium, Easter - September 12 (excluding Wednesdays and Fridays following Whitsuntide)

Approximate Time Activity

1:30 Professed rise from their beds, don night shoes, proceed to the choir, and recite private prayers while waiting for the children to arrive. The latter enter and say their prayers while the professed wait.

2:00 Celebration of Nocturns (Divine Office, Office of the Dead, Office of All Saints, Office of Our Lady).

3:30 (or when finished with Nocturns) Celebration of Matins (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).
Return to dormitories and if still dark, sleep until light.
Wash and don day clothes.

5:00 Recite private prayers.
Recitation of private Masses by ordained religious, and reading.

6:00 Celebration of Prime (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).
Celebration of morrow Mass.
Meet in chapter.

7:30 Reading or work such as the copying of books.

8:00 Celebration of Terce (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).
Celebration of High Mass.

9:30 Reading or work such as the copying of books.
Refectory servers and readers consume a small amount of bread and ale.

11:30 Celebration of Sext (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).

12:00 Dinner (prandium) in the refectory.

13:00 Sleep in the dormitory (siesta).

14:30 Celebration of None (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).
Drink in the refectory.

15:00 Reading or work such as the copying of books.
Refectory servers and readers consume a small amount of bread and ale.

17:30 Supper (cena) in the refectory.

18:00 Celebration of Vespers (Divine Office, Office of the Dead, Office of All Saints, Office of Our Lady).

19:30 Return to the dormitory and change into night shoes.
Public reading (collatio) in the choir.

20:00 Celebration of Compline (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).
Recitation of private prayers.

20:15 Retire to dormitory for sleep.

Table 4 summarizes the standard summer horarium. The day starts earlier and ends later than it does in the winter. To help offset the loss of sleep, two naps are permitted during the daylight hours. Two meals, dinner and supper, are taken, the first at around midday, the second in the early evening.

Table 5: Horarium, Whitsuntide - September 12 (Wednesdays and Fridays only)

Approximate Time Activity

1:30 Professed rise from their beds, don night shoes, proceed to the choir, and recite private prayers while waiting for the children to arrive. The latter enter and say their prayers while the professed wait.

2:00 Celebration of Nocturns (Divine Office, Office of the Dead, Office of All Saints, Office of Our Lady).

3:30 (or when finished with Nocturns) Celebration of Matins (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).
Return to dormitories and if still dark, sleep until light.
Wash and don day clothes.

5:00 Recite private prayers.
Recitation of private Masses by ordained religious, and reading.

6:00 Celebration of Prime (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).
Celebration of morrow Mass.
Meet in chapter.

7:30 Reading or work such as the copying of books.

8:00 Celebration of Terce (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).
Celebration of High Mass.

9:30 Reading or work such as the copying of books.

11:30 Celebration of Sext (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).

12:30 Celebration of None (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).
Refectory servers and readers leave the church and consume a small amount of bread and ale.

13:00 Sleep in the dormitory (siesta).

14:00 Dinner (prandium) in the refectory.

15:00 Reading or work such as the copying of books.

17:30 Drink in the refectory.

18:00 Celebration of Vespers (Divine Office, Office of the Dead, Office of All Saints, Office of Our Lady).

19:30 Return to the dormitory and change into night shoes.
Public reading (collatio) in the choir.

20:00 Celebration of Compline (Divine Office, Office of Our Lady).
Recitation of private prayers.

20:15 Retire to dormitory for sleep.

Finally, Table 5 outlines the alternate summer horarium used on Wednesdays and Fridays from Whitsuntide to the middle of September. In essence, it combines the summer and winter timetables. The days of the religious are long and daytime rest periods are allowed, but no supper is served.

Endnotes

1. David Knowles, The Monastic Order in England, 2nd edition (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1963), 16.

2. Saint Benedict, "Rule for Monasteries," Readings in Medieval History, 2nd edition, ed. Patrick J. Geary (Peterborough, Ontario: Broadview Press, 1997), 158-187.

3. Knowles, Monastic Order, 371; and Janet Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders in Britain 1000-1300 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1994), 213.

4. Knowles, Monastic Order, 193-202, 276, 315-321, 371, 649-654.

5. G. Cyprian Alston, "Benedictine Order," Catholic Encyclopedia, ed. Kevin Knight, 1999, 21 Oct. 2001 <http://www.newadvent.org/cathen/02443a.htm>

6. Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders, 47.

7. Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders, 173-174.

8. Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders, 47, 93.

9. Rosalind Hill, "From the Conquest to the Black Death," A History of Religion in Britain, ed. Sheridan Gilley and W. J. Sheils (Cambridge: Basil Blackwell Ltd., 1994), 50; and Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders, 8-11.

10. Knowles, Monastic Order, 21-23; and Sharon K. Elkins, Holy Women of Twelfth Century England (Chapel Hill: University of North Carolina Press, 1988), 1.

11. Knowles, Monastic Order, 23-24, 31-42, 48; and Elkins, Holy Women, 1.

12. Knowles, Monastic Order, 111-115, 121, 126-127; and Elkins, Holy Women, 13.

13. Knowles, Monastic Order, 174, 280-286.

14. Knowles, Monastic Order, 421-423.

15. Elkins, Holy Women, 13, 61, 76; and Brian Golding, "Monasticism and the Benedictine Order," Medieval England: An Encyclopedia, ed. Paul E. Szarmach, et al.(New York: Garland Publishing, Inc., 1998), 522.

16. Knowles, Monastic Order, 315; and Janet Burton, The Monastic Order in Yorkshire, 1069-1215 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999), 43.

17. Knowles, Monastic Order, 425-426.

18. Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders, 48-49, 239-241, 250; Hill, "From the Conquest", 53; Colin Platt, Medieval England: A Social History and Archaeology from the Conquest to 1600 A.D. (New York: Charles Sribner's Sons, 1978), 46; Hugh M. Thomas, Vassals, Heiresses, Crusaders and Thugs: The Gentry of Angevin Yorkshire, 1154-1216 (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1993), 33-34; Judith A. Green, The Aristocracy of Norman England (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1997), 403.

19. Thomas, Vassals, 149; and Elkins, Holy Women, 76.

20. Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders, 211-212; and Knowles, Monastic Order, 609.

21. Bennett D. Hill, English Cistercian Monasteries and Their Patrons in the Twelfth Century (Urbana: University of Illinois Press, 1968), 44; Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders, 213; Knowles, Monastic Order, 609; and Green, Aristocracy, 427.

22. Knowles, Monastic Order, 476-478; and Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders, 179-180.

23. Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders, 239-241.

24. Knowles, Monastic Order, 609; and Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders, 250.

25. Knowles, Monastic Order, 445-447; and Roberta Gilchrist, Gender and Material Culture: The Archaeology of Religious Women (London: Routledge, 1994), 64).

26. Green, Aristocracy, 427; Knowles, Monastic Order, 612-614; and Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders, 214.

27. Knowles, Monastic Order, 405-406, 612-613; and Doris M. Stenton, English Society in the Early Middle Ages (1066-1307) (Harmondsworth, Middlesex: Penguin Books Ltd., 1951), 242.

28. Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders, 48-49, 245-246

29. G. H. Cook, The English Mediaeval Parish Church (London: J. M. Dent and Sons, Ltd., 1970), 41-42; Bernard Hamilton, Religion in the Medieval West (New York: Oxford University Press, 1986), 33; and Elkins, Holy Women, 91-92.

30. Knowles, Monastic Order, 481-482; and Roy Midmer, English Mediaeval Monasteries (1066-1540): A Summary (Athens, Georgia: University of Georgia Press, 1979), 19-20.

31. Knowles, Monastic Order, 534-538; and Percy Watson, Building the Medieval Cathedrals (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1976), 35.

32. Midmer, English Mediaeval Monasteries, 20-22; and Knowles, Monastic Order, 303.

33. Knowles, Monastic Order, 85.

34. Knowles, Monastic Order, 276, 300-302.

35. Knowles, Monastic Order, 427-431, 435-438.

36. Elkins, Holy Women, 93-94.

37. Elkins, Holy Women, 90-92.

38. Knowles, Monastic Order, 129-134, 625, 629; and Hill, "From the Conquest", 50.

39. Frank Barlow, The Feudal Kingdom of England 1042-1216, 5th edition (London: Longmans, Green and Co. Ltd., 1999), 316-317; and Knowles, Monastic Order, 318, 624, 626-627.

40. Barlow, Feudal Kingdom, 316-317; and Knowles, Monastic Order, 630.

41. Knowles, Monastic Order, 315-323.

42. Knowles, Monastic Order, 476-478.

43. Knowles, Monastic Order, 473-475.

44. Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders, 213; and Knowles, Monastic Order, 415.

45. Knowles, Monastic Order, 399-403.

46. Knowles, Monastic Order, 403-404.

47. Knowles, Monastic Order, 407-410.

48. Knowles, Monastic Order, 409; and Hill, English Cistercian Monasteries, 144.

49. Knowles, Monastic Order, 422-423.

50. Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders, 178-80; Knowles, Monastic Order, 440, 467; and Eileen Power, Medieval English Nunneries circa 1275 to 1535 (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1922), 153.

51. Knowles, Monastic Order, 421-422.

52. Knowles, Monastic Order, 419, 422-423.

53. Hamilton, Religion, 29.

54. Knowles, Monastic Order, 444-445.

55. Knowles, Monastic Order, 669-670; Sally Thompson, Women Religious: The Founding of English Nunneries after the Norman Conquest (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1991), 213-214; and Power, Medieval English Nunneries, 342-343.

56. The illustration is conjectural, showing how Durham Cathedral's east end might have looked in the late twelfth century. See Ian Curry, "Aspects of the Anglo-Norman Design of Durham Cathedral," Archaeologia Aeliana, 5th Series, vol. XIV, 1986, 31-48. Architecturally, the illustration is based primarily upon that article's Figures 4 and 8, found on pages 38 and 47 respectively.

57. Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders, 137-139, 141; J. C. Dickinson, Monastic Life in Medieval England (London: Adam and Charles Black Ltd., 1961), 17-26; and Hill, "From the Conquest", 50.

58. Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders, 141-144.

59. Knowles, Monastic Order, 467, 534-538; and Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders, 187-189.

60. Knowles, Monastic Order, 438-439, 457, 467.

61. Knowles, Monastic Order, 448-453.

62. Knowles, Monastic Order, 448-453, 456-457.

63. Knowles, Monastic Order, 463-464, 540-543; and Hamilton, Religion, 29.

64. J. C. Dickinson, The Origins of the Austin Canons and their Introduction into England (London: S.P.C.K., 1950), 192; and Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders, 187-189, 201.

65. Knowles, Monastic Order, 525; and Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders, 193-194.

66. Knowles, Monastic Order, 525-526; and Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders, 194-200.

67. James Westfall Thompson, The Medieval Library (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1939), 599; Robert Bartlett, England Under the Norman and Angevin Kings 1075-1225 (Oxford: Clarendon Press, 2000), 528-529; and Knowles, Monastic Order, 522.

68. Dickinson, Origins, 192; Ernest A. Savage, Old English Libraries: The Making, Collection, and Use of Books During the Middle Ages (London: Methuen, 1911), 23-24; and Hamilton, Religion, 33.

69. Knowles, Monastic Order, 519-520; and Thompson, Medieval Library, 599.

70. Knowles, Monastic Order, 457-463.

71. Knowles, Monastic Order, 463-465.

72. Knowles, Monastic Order, 457.

73. Knowles, Monastic Order, 669.

74. Alston, "Benedictine Order;" and Elkins, Holy Women, 3-4.

75. Knowles, Monastic Order, 453-456; Power, Medieval English Nunneries, 287; and Burton , Monastic and Religious Orders, 165.

76. David Knowles, "The Monastic Horarium 970-1120," Downside Review, vol. LI, Oct. 1933, 711-717, 721-722; Knowles, Monastic Order, 4-6, 448-471, 714-715; Burton, Monastic and Religious Orders, 159-161; and E. K. Milliken, English Monasticism Yesterday and Today (London: George G. Harrap and Company, Ltd., 1967), 80.

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